Foundation of the American Legal System Essay example

Unit 3 assignment Name Kaplan University LS100 Describe the organization and foundation of the American legal system. Explain the different roles of the federal and state government. The American legal system consists of two separate levels of court, defined as federalism, which together administer and enforce the laws in the United States. Federalism distributes the government powers between both the federal governments and the state governments, which ensures that the power of the national government is decentralized. The US Constitution divides the federal government into three branches - legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative branch, consisting of the House of Representative and the Senate, make laws,†¦show more content†¦Each state prosecutes crimes committed against the state or society as a whole. Each state court must adhere to guidelines set forth by the federal government. Crimes against a state are held to a higher standard and must prove a party is guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. Whereas crimes against an individual are civil cases, generally do not result in jail time and have a lower burden of proof. I agree with federalism because it ensures that one group never has too much power. Additionally, different states may have different values or needs and should be able to adopt their own policies. The structure of the legal systems ensures that no one branch has unlimited power and allows the three branches to keep each other in check. The organization o f the American legal system is both diverse and unified at the same time. Describe the Supremacy Clause and explain what happens when there is a direct conflict between federal and state law. The US Constitution defines the federal government as â€Å"The Supreme Law of the land†, known as the Supremacy Clause. Article VI, Section 2, of the U.S. Constitution states that, should the federal government exercise their rights enumerated in the Constitution, they would prevail over any conflicting state implementation of power. The clause ensures that the federal laws take precedence over state laws and ensures that state judges uphold these laws. The Supremacy Clause checks the power of the local governments byShow MoreRelatedComparing the Constitution as a Source of Law With Other Legal Sources1105 Words   |  4 PagesConstitution as a Source of Law with Other Legal Sources As July 4th gets ever closer, this is the time to appreciate our founding fathers and the Constitution they drafted in the early years of the United States. The Constitution is a major document within American history that sits at the very foundation of other legal processes here in the United States. It helps protect relations between states, our legal process, and our basic rights as American citizens. Other legal sources, such as state and localRead MoreThe Formation Of Islamic And Western Law995 Words   |  4 PagesIslamic law, or Shariah, is legal system governing the members of the Islamic faith. The formation of Islamic and Western law has similar types of foundation structures that have supported what it is today. There are also many different ways people can interpret Shariah and apply it to modern society. Although there are strong influences that hinder the practice of Islamic law, abandoning the law is not the best solution to countries in turmoil. Islamic Law The formation of Islamic law is thoughtRead MoreThe Affordable Care Act ( Aca )956 Words   |  4 Pageslegislation had, as their target objective, the goal of reforming healthcare in the United States, so that more Americans had greater access to more affordable, better quality healthcare/healthcare-related services, at lower cost to the government. The Affordable Care Act is therefore but the latest culmination of these varying pieces of legislation, and their objectives, into a large, system-changing piece of legislation which continue to effect healthcare practice and delivery in the United StatesRead MoreComparison Of American And Chinese Legal Culture1609 Words   |  7 PagesComparison of American and Chinese legal culture Abstract: The legal culture is a national, regional or national basis in certain social and material conditions, the state power by the creation of a common legal system constraints and determine the status of the legal system of values and attitudes in the whole society and culture. Thus, each country has its own unique legal culture. By selecting the most typical American and Chinese legal cultures of two different aspects: the legal standard, comparativeRead MoreThe Importance Of Human Rights And Social Justice1015 Words   |  5 Pagesorder for human rights to exist, there must be some sort of legal institution that allows for human rights to be implemented and respected within society. The human rights of every individual on the planet cannot exist, if there is no law or legislation to give force and effect to it. Human rights do no exist simply because of the â€Å"wants† of human beings, humans cannot simply want human rights and social justice. There must be a foundation for hu man rights to be built upon, and human rights are formalizedRead MoreThe Political Environment of the Philippines1001 Words   |  5 Pagesrule presided in governmental issues, the decline did not escalate till 1898 when American influence began. The Treaty of Paris was enacted and Spain gave the U.S. all right to claim P.I. as a U.S. colony. Constitutional framework of the current government The Treaty of Paris led to the Malolos constitution after 1898. This governments first constitution was modeled from France, Belgium and some South American republics. The Philippine bill of rights was also drafted from the same nationsRead MoreGender Identification : An Exploration Of The Transgender Group1625 Words   |  7 Pagesimportant for members of society to interact with one another without discrimination or making a person feel like they have to conform to their biological status. The nonprofit organization Planned Parenthood defines gender as a person’s â€Å"boy or girl legal and social status they were born with†, and gender identity as a â€Å"personal choice of gender expression (Planned Parenthood Federation of America Inc., 2007).† When defining gender and gender identity, sexuality plays a role in understanding a person’sRead MoreThe Declaration of Independence: Americas Foundation Essay example1229 Words   |  5 PagesThe issue the Declaration of Independence being a legal document has been up for debate in courts for many years now. Although, the Declaration of Independence clarifies the United States identity as a free nation, it has generated intense controversy. Some feel strongly that it did not clearly define the new powers that the thirteen colonies would acquire and did not define the identity of the United States; while, others firmly believe that without the Declaration of Independence the United StatesRead Mor eAnalysis Of Brown V. Board Of Education1367 Words   |  6 Pagesin American Higher Education? An analysis of Brown v. Board of Education The history of education, much like the history of America, is rooted in severe discrimination and exploitation. The education system engendered a foundation that is grounded in the popular ideal of â€Å"the group† and â€Å"the other.† These groups dominated educational institutions for many generations and remained unchallenged despite growing unrest surrounding the popular belief. It was not until the 1950’s that this system ofRead MoreThe U.S. Supreme Court Is The Ultimate Authority In The1634 Words   |  7 PagesSupreme Court is the ultimate authority in the American legal system and is the central institution that coordinates laws that affect the American society every day. The Supreme Court has issued verdicts on issues that involves the rights of citizens, including those of women, minorities, elderly, disabled, gays, young people, and many others. These changes have had both positive and adverse outcomes that ostensibly improve the status of the Amer ican people and defining the rights of lawbreakers.

The Views Of Karl Marx And Charles Darwin - 1376 Words

The Views of Karl Marx and Charles Darwin The statement made by Professor T. Huxley has stated that Karl Marx and Charles Darwin are very similar in uses of reason and the scientific method in order to create a world that offers more equality and justice, and in their faith in progress. I believe that he is correct in saying that they are similar in their use of reason and the scientific method. Looking deeper into it I think that they differ in the regard of bringing equality and justice to the world. Marx, in the words of Frederick Engels, is the Darwin of history; â€Å"This proposition, which, in my opinion, is destined to do for history what Darwin’s theory has done for biology, we, both of us, had been gradually approaching for†¦show more content†¦Marx did the same thing in The Communist Manifesto. In the first section of the Manifesto Marx states â€Å"The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles,† (Marx, 9). This is very similar to the foundation of natural selection being that it all roots from the struggle for existence. Marx has a theory of the cycle of bourgeoisie society. His theory is that the constant battle of the oppressed and the oppressor will ultimately lead to the revolution of the society. â€Å"Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guildmaster and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes,† (Marx, 9). This hypothesis eventually becomes Marx theory and As Darwin did he backed his theory up with evidence; â€Å"All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority, in the interest of the immense majority,† (Marx, 20). Marx theory is tried and true in history as he says. For example the French Revolution and the oppression of the lower middle class by the king and bourgeoisie. Another example is GreatShow MoreRelatedThe Radical Nature of Social Contract Theorists Essay1403 Words   |  6 Pagessocial contract theorists have worked to understand the ties that bind man. Karl Marx, Charles Darwin, and Friedrich Nietzsche, each felt constrained by their times, and because of this introduced radical concepts surrounding the social contract. Each of the philosophers’ revolutionary concepts challenges power and even though their arguments differ dramatically Nietzsche can be viewed as the most radical of the three. Karl Marx is most often recognized as a radical who wanted to overthrow capitalismRead MoreProgress is defined as movement toward a destination. Conflict is defined as being incompatible or1500 Words   |  6 Pagesof some distinguished force. In thinking on this question two scholars immediately present themselves. They are Charles Darwin and Karl Marx. Both of these men, one a naturalist/geologist, the other an economic historian, in their own individual works, which play on opposite sides of the academic sphere, seek to answer this question. In the end, Darwin motivated by fascination, and Marx motivated by political passion, arrive to the same conclusion; that is that humanity cannot progress or move pastRead MoreAn Analysis of Cultural Influences in the 19th and 20th Centuries734 Words   |  3 Pagesphilosophical influences in that time period, Marx, Darwin, Freud, Nietzsche, and Dostoevsky each represents a decisively different view of history than the view of history previ ously dominant in Western culture. This paper will discuss the historical and cultural events surrounding these five thinkers and show how they shaped, concurrently with scientific developments, the course of human thought in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Karl Marx, for instance, reacted powerfully against HegelsRead MoreThe Age Of Enlightenment By Leonardo De Vinci s David957 Words   |  4 Pagesof separation between church and state was the first step in a future without God being the center of ideas. Locke didn’t want Religion to be abolished; Locke argued that the government lacked authority and power and needed to be divided. Locke’s views on Religion tolerance and the importance of a wall dividing Church and state became what influenced the United States Constitution in the American colonies. Locke wanted a liberty of conscience, a natural right that should be protected from being corruptedRead MoreThe Theory Of Evolution Of Creationism977 Words   |  4 PagesThe theory of evolution is at odds with the views of many religions, and many people want to allow a religious view of creationism to be taught in the public school system. The foundation of evolution is based upon the belief that the origin of all ordered complex systems, including living creatures, can be explained by natural laws without the initiation or intervention of God. A person who believes in the biblical model of creation is viewed by some non- believers as a naive, narrow-minded religiousRead MoreThe Theory Of Nature And Religious Belief Essay1041 Words   |  5 Pages It really only arose in the last third of the nineteenth century, after the publication of Darwin s book on evolution. In the wake of the furor over Darwin s idea that humans were descended from apes, some people on both sides tried to paint the other side as the enemy. Charles Darwin was the one that put forward the theory that all life evolves by processes of natural selection. According to Darwin, life began with very simple creatures, which gradually evolved over millions of years into moreRead MoreHuman Nature Essay1099 Words   |  5 Pages Is there or is there not human nature? For Charles Darwin the answer is no. Darwin was the first to introduce the concept of evolution. He believed that humans evolved from the ape and not in the image of God. Darwin contradicted Aristotles view that man has a purpose in life -to reason. For Darwin, man has no pur pose. According to Darwin, man began as one of a few species on this planet, fighting for survival. Man was better equipped with certain traits that allowed him to pass through theRead MoreGreat Issues in Western Civilization Essay1142 Words   |  5 Pageswouldn’t be great unless people were affected by it. Then the question is what is an issue, and what makes an issue. First of all, every issue has to have more then one side, and each side has their own point of view. This point of view is usually very ethnocentric as well. Secondly, every point of view is seen with a different perspective, which no one else can see. It all depends on who the source is and what makes up their background. Every human has been socialized in some way, and these circumstancesRead MoreExploring one of the Greatest Theorists of his Time: Charles Darwin1286 Words   |  6 PagesExploring one of the Greatest Theorists of his Time: Charles Darwin Our Society depends upon science, and yet to so many of us what scientists do is a mystery. The sciences are not just collections of facts, but are ordered by theory; which is why Einstein could say that science was a free creation of the human mind. (Bowler) Charles Darwin is one of the most famous scientists and theorists who had ever lived. Darwin has been written from his background to his evolutionary theory and on theRead MoreH.G. Well’s The Time Machine: Fearing Time1033 Words   |  5 Pagesscience fiction, it has numerous visions that were realistic. In the Victorian era, industrialism began expanding. New technology arose to society. When all of this was occurring Charles Darwin published his book in 1859 called â€Å"On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection†. The whole theory behind Charles Darwin was survival of the fittest. Though H.G Wells disagreed with this theory. Wells grew up poor and still became a good scientist and writer. H.G. well fear that Victorian era is

Sc300 Big Ideas in Science from Methods to Mutation Free Essays

Jennifer Rivera SC300: Big Ideas in Science: From Methods to Mutation Professor: Shalon Bull August 14, 2012 1. List all of the components of two of your meals. Meal #1 – Breakfast For breakfast I had a Tuna fish sandwich, with lettuce, two slices of tomato, sauteed onions, and Hellmann’s mayonnaise. We will write a custom essay sample on Sc300: Big Ideas in Science: from Methods to Mutation or any similar topic only for you Order Now I also had approximately 10 ounces of Minute Maid Tropical fruit Juice. Meal #2 – Lunch My Lunch consisted of a grilled Tyson chicken breast fillets, with steamed mix vegetables, and 8 ounces of bottle purified Dasani water. 1A. Where did each component of your meal originate? List the country that each part of your meal came from. Meal #1 – Breakfast The origin of the Tuna fish sandwich is as follows; The bread for the sandwich was two slices of Holsum whole wheat bread which is made in Puerto Rico, one 5 ounce chicken of the sea tuna can which is made in San Diego California, The lettuce and tomato was locally grown on the US Virgin Islands St. Croix by local farmers, the Hellmann’s Mayonnaise was made in New York and the Minute Maid Tropical fruit Juice is produced by the Coca Cola Bottling Co. f Atlanta, GA. Meal #2 – Lunch The Tyson Chicken Breast Fillets are from Springdale, Arkansas and the mix vegetables are locally grown on the US Virgin Islands St. Croix by local farmers. The Dasani water is produced by the Coca Cola Bottling Co. of Atlanta, GA. 1B. List where you purchased the products from. Being the St. Croix US Virgin Islands is only 84 square miles and has a population of about 60,000 people we only have two main grocery stores which are the same just two different locations, Plaza Extra East and Plaza Extra West. I do all my shopping for grocery in Plaza Extra East for the last 20 plus years. So Meal #1 – Breakfast, and Meal #2 – Lunch were all purchased from Plaza Extra East on St. Croix USVI. 1C. Consider the chain of events that took the product to get from the farm/laboratory to your table Being that St. Croix is located in the Caribbean, most of our foods supply come from the State of Florida and is ship by containers on ships. The fresh produce and bread are shipped from the island of Puerto Rico where they are made. The only thing that is grown on the Virgin Islands is fresh vegetables and some fruits. 2. What are some of the benefits of a global market and why? List at least 2 benefits, weighing any short-term and long-term impacts. Some of the benefits of global marketing would be that consumers would have a larger range of products to choose from. Another would be the opportunities to small companies which can expand to serve a global market instead of a small country. This would give consumers the opportunity to buy better products at lower cost. Another benefit would be that opening offices in other countries would provide jobs for locals in that country and for the country that is opening the office this means that they will be getting cheaper labor than that which they would pay in their home country for the same job. 3. What are some of the impacts of this global market and why? Considering both short-term and long-term impacts, provide at least 2 negative impacts. Some of the negative impacts that the global market can experience can be caused by poor management of these international markets and others can occur naturally like for example bad weather. Weather and natural disasters can affect the global market in many ways, for example a country like China which exports Rice, can experience bad weather for a year which would affect the production of rice, this would not only affect China economically but cause the global price of rice to rise and the availability of the produce to diminish. So can we as a Country trust the global market as our primary source of food? I would suggest developing the nation’s agriculture programs and the production of foods in our nation the United States of American, and all other countries should do the same. This would be like an emergency reserve in other words. Another negative impact would be regulating the rates of taxation from one country to another. For instance if the rates of taxes are higher in Mexico for an American company then the United States might then move that office to Brazil for example. This would affect the investments market for others which would affect the global market tremendously. 4. Consider the phrase Think Globally, Act Locally. What does it mean to you? This phrase in my opinion means that you are thinking beyond the horizon and understand the issues and needs of the entire world, but need to master and fix the issues of your own country before you can get involved with the rest of the world. I think that if we improve and expand our food production capabilities then we can move on to the global market and work together for the same cause which is to bring food to those places that lack it and so much desires it. 5. Has your research on the global market changed the way you will choose goods in the future? Why or why not? After my research on the global market I would say that I will not be changing the way I choose my goods in the future. I would still choose the things that I like and would not change these things just because a nation or country might be benefiting from my purchase more than another. The one thing that I now understand after my research is the reason why certain name brands of products are more expensive than others. The prices of products in the global market fluctuate based on the economical state of the producing country and the markets demands. I learned that the more money a country has the more food and better quality they get, this is why poor countries lack food, and even more have a smaller variety in the food choices. References J. C. Chavis. (April 2010) Negative Impacts of a Global Market for Investment. Retrieved from http://www. brighthub. com/money/investing/articles/69512. aspx â€Å"Economic Globalization† UC Atlas of Global Inequality. Retrieved from http://ucatlas. ucsc. edu/economic. php Global Marketing. Retrieved from http://www. businessdictionary. com/definition/global-marketing. html How to cite Sc300: Big Ideas in Science: from Methods to Mutation, Essay examples

Detailed Report on Classical Conditioning & Perruchet Effect

Question: Write a report on the classical conditioning and the perruchet effect. Answer: Abstract Classical conditioning is considered to have been the very first form of learning to be discovered and studied within behaviorist tradition (Mitchell, De Houwer Lovibond, 2009). Many individuals today have the general notion that is it one of the most basic types of associative learning, believing that Ivan Pavlovs 1927 dog experiments had something to do with it. Being a Russian scientist, Pavlov started out by studying the digestive system of dogs and eventually was intrigued with his observation. He observed that dogs deprived of food for a given period of time would begin to salivate when one of his assistants walked into the room. Pavlov then investigated this particular occurrence and established the laws of classical conditioning. From his observations, he determined that a stimulus could become linked with food, causing salivation on its own. This report aims at determining whether or not a conditioned response requires conscious expectation of the Unconditioned Stimuli. An experiment questioning the Perruchet Effect will be conducted and the expectancy ratings measured. The relevant methods and outcomes will also be discussed, and conclusions provided at the end. Introduction The basic classical conditioning procedure takes place when a Neutral Stimulus (NS) is combined with an Unconditional Stimulus (US). Here, the NS can be anything as long as it is not capable of provoking any form of response in the animal or person. The US, on the other hand, is something that automatically results in an inherent response. Pavlov referred this as the Unconditional Response (UR). Notably, classical conditioning emphasizes on the significance of learning from the environment, supporting nurture over nature. One of the numerous strengths of classical conditioning theory is that it is scientific as it is founded on the empirical proof conducted by controlled experiments. Secondly, it is also a reductionist explanation of behavior (Lovibond Shanks, 2002). This means that complicated actions are broken down into smaller stimulus-response units of behavior. An alternate theory contending that the underlying mechanisms of human conditioning incorporate both automatic and co nscious processes has resulted in heated discussions in the literature. The strongest proof for the duel process theory is the one referred to as the Perruchet Effect which refers to a psychological occurrence in which dissociation is indicated between conscious expectation of an event, and the speed or strength of a response to this particular event (Perruchet Vinter, 2002). In 1985, Perruchet carried out an eyeblink conditioning study, providing evidence for a double dissociation between Unconditioned Stimulus expectancy and eyeblink Conditioned Responses in eyeblink conditioning. He made use of a 50% random partial fortification schedule, and participants offered ratings in the course of the intertribal session. Notably, Perruchets study is considered to be quite significant because participants eyeblink Conditioned Responses revealed the opposite pattern (Clark, Manns Squire, 2001). This is to say that as the number of successive non-reinforced trials increased, participants eyeblink CRs gradually decreased. On the other hand, as the number of successive reinforced trials increased, their eyeblink CRs also increased. Perruchet offered some proof against the Unconditioned Stimulus sensitization explanation by including an unpaired control group which received USs and CSs in an unpaired manner. Notably, participants in the US sensitization group did no t indicate any transformations in eyeblink CRs as an outcome of US recency. The role played by knowledge with respect to the connection between CS and US in human Pavlovian conditioning is not well understood. However, despite the presence of a clear-cut consensus on this particular issue, many employees acknowledge that the awareness of CS-US connections is a necessary condition for the occurrence of human conditioning (Moratti Keil, 2005). Recently, there has been a need for cognitive theories of conditioning to pursue the line of inquiry and it is here that the idea of expectancy becomes useful. With regards to the human eyeblink conditioning, Perruchet introduced a model for evaluating the significance of expectancy and conditioning strength. In human learning research, it is often assumed that the experience with unforeseen events between occurrences tend to influence cognition and behavior in manners not necessarily considered to be under the conscious control of the person (Burns Corpus, 2004). However, numerous literatures have highlighted Perruchets dissociation between trends in expectancy of the Unconditioned Stimulus and trends in conditioned responding. Notably, the repetition of CS-US pairings tends to increase the strength of the CS-US connection, together with the possibility that a human respondent realizes the connection between stimuli, expecting the occurrence of the US after the CS. Similarly, the r epetition of CS alone often weakens the firmness of the CS-US connection in keeping with the principle of extinction. The transformations in expectancy as a function of the inherence of preceding runs in Perruchets paradigm are attributed to the Gamblers Fallacy. This is a mistaken tendency to believe that a completed run of a specific result will automatically be balanced by a propensity for the opposite result in the immediate future, given a random sequence of occurrences (Perruchet, Cleeremans Destrebecqz, 2006). It is important to note that while in the Perruchets paradigm sampling is without replacement, the Gamblers Fallacy is applicable to situations where successive occurrences are sincerely random. Human participants are able to demonstrate associative learning by simply recording when they expect the Unconditioned Stimulus to take place. It can also be demonstrated by describing the nature of the contingency between the CS and the US, or both (Lovibond Shanks, 2002). Associative learning is the ability possessed by many organisms to learn about connections between separate occurrences when such events are repeatedly combined with one another. It has been suggested that there exists to autonomous learning systems in function in Pavlovian conditioning. Whereas one system results in declarative available knowledge of the stimulus possibilities, the other incorporates the automatic establishment of excitatory connections between nodes that represent the CS and the US. Notably, this dual system perspective of associative learning is widely accepted. However, the empirical proof on which it is founded is rather weak. Definition of key terms and description of key phenomena US Unconditioned Stimulus UCR Unconditioned Response NS Neutral Stimulus CS Conditioned Stimulus CR Conditioned Response Stimulus Any characteristic of the environment affecting human or animal behavior Extinction The dying out of a CR by breaking the connection between the US and the CS Response The action brought about by the stimulus, such as, the salivating response from Pavlovs experiments with dogs Generalization When a stimulus similar to the CS also elicits a response Statement of the Experiment Aim and general description of the experiment, including key variables In this report, an experiment was carried out to determine whether or not Perruchets dissociation was still evident even when participants have a good reason to expect that one outcome is more likely than the other. Participants were expected to score as many points as possible in a coin toss task where the outcome of the coin flip was presented as either Heads or Tails. If the result was Heads, the participants had to press space bar as fast as possible (Livesey Costa, 2013). Conscious expectancy was also included where these participants had to predict whether the next test will be Heads or Tails. Prediction converted to expectancy rating of -5 to 5. Hypothesis in relation to relevant theory (or theories) The main hypothesis in relation to this particular experiment and relevant theories was that there would be a stronger expectancy in Heads predictions than Tails. It was also hypothesized that predictions that are influenced by runs of occurrences are always consistent with the Gamblers Fallacy theory. Method The experiment consisted of 127 university students as the respondents who completed this particular experiment in a tutorial class. There were a total of 86 female students whose average age was 22 years. Participants were randomly allocated to either a tails biased, heads biased, or unbiased condition in each session. Notably, none of the respondents were excluded from the experiment. The devices that were used were the Apple iMac computers installed with programming software, MatLab. These devices were used to create stimuli, provide stimuli, and record reactions. For the experiment, a 3x8 design was utilized, with the between subjects conditions incorporating a heads biased, tails biased, and unbiased condition. While the probability of heads was 0.6, and tails biased 0.4, that of unbiased condition was 0.5 (Mitchell, De Houwer Lovibond, 2009). The basic run framework was consistent with previous studies on the Perruchet effect and the key within subjects factors were randomly ordered lengths of trials. Additionally, the kinds of trials were collated in consecutive 8-run length groups from -5 to 5. When assessing the progression of trials offered to each respondent, repetitions of the same or opposing US as equivalents of positive and negative runs of trials were examined. For the procedure, the participants were informed that they were to take part in a coin toss prediction game whose aim would be to score as many points as possible. The experiment basically consisted of two main tasks, that is a speeded response task and a prediction task. The latter measured conscious expectancy and required respondents to predict the outcome of the coin toss on the following trial. If the correct prediction was made, then the participant would win the number of points they chose, and vice versa. Results From the results, when the participants were presented with a biased coin, there was a stronger expectancy in Heads biased condition than Unbiased. Moreover, weaker expectancy was witnessed in Tails biased condition than Unbiased. Mean prediction was considered to be sensitive to the length of the previous run in all groups. With regards to reaction time, Tails biased condition was slower than the Unbiased one while Heads biased did not indicate any significant difference to the latter (Shanks Lovibond, 2002). Discussion Looking at the experiment that was conducted in relation to Perruchets dissociation, it was observed that predictions actually tend to be influenced by runs of events consistent with the Gamblers Fallacy. The speed of the participants response time was also influenced by runs of events consistent with conditioning. Explicit predictions were quite sensitive to the total probability of each outcome. Response times were not wholly sensitive to the total probability of each result, and the Tails biased group was much slower than their Heads and Unbiased counterparts. Despite these outcomes, Perruchets dissociation still holds true. When grouping participants on whether they exhibited a consistent Gamblers Fallacy or not, those who did not do so showed a downward linear trend on both forms of expectancy trials. The outcomes suggested that when the respondents are clearly asked to make an expectancy judgment, it affects the preparation of the successive choices in a manner that overrides a utomatic influences of learning (Soetens Notebaert, 2005). Since long successive runs of expectancy trials and no expectancy trials were not all inclusive in this experiment, the presence of the Gamblers Fallacy was founded on the results taking place on both these trials. Concurrent measurement of expectancy in choice response time tasks does not necessarily eliminate Perruchets dissociation, but rather prevents its manifestation. Participants still learn the connection between the tone and the result, and it is this learning that affects response time, as the downward linear trend can be seen on the no expectancy trials. Moreover, voluntary responses in the speeded tasks were affected by automatic learning dependent on trial history, and conscious beliefs with regards to upcoming events (Perruchet Vinter, 2002). Overall, the experiment proved reliability of Perruchet Effect when expectancy was moderated or manipulated. The limited number of relevant research studies has left much room for generalization and expansion. Future research is therefore necessary with regards to instructions conveyed to participants about the actual possibility of different results. A masking task often used in conditioning literature can also be exploited in order to limit participants engagement of higher-order cognitive processes (Clark, Manns Squire, 2001). The influence of greater variations in the procedure could be explored. Conclusion Concurrent measurement of expectancy in choice response time does not usually get rid of the Perruchet Effect. However, automatic facilitation founded on previous trial history is temporarily weakened when respondents have to clearly record their conscious expectations, especially when indicating a consistent Gamblers Fallacy bias in their expectancy ratings. In Perruchets experiment, studies tend to produce the opposite trend in conditioned responding. Additionally, priming of a voluntary action displays a similar trend to conditioned responding. The strength of the conditioned response is thus influenced by factors other than the conscious expectation of the outcome. References Burns, B., Corpus, B. (2004). Randomness and inductions from streaks: Gamblers fallacy versus hot hand. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 11. Pp. 179 184. Clark, R.E., Manns, J.R., Squire, L.R. (2001). Trace and delay eyeblink conditioning: Contrasting phenomena of declarative and nondeclarative memory. Psycho Sci., 12. Pp. 304 308. Livesey, E.J., Costa, D.S.J. (2013). Automaticity and conscious control in single and choice response time versions of the Perruchet effect. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(4). Pp. 646 664. Lovibond, P.F. Shanks, D.R. (2002). The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: Empirical evidence and theoretical implications. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 28(1). Pp. 3 26. Mitchell, C.J., De Houwer, J., Lovibond, P.F. (2009). The propositional nature of human associative learning. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 32. Pp. 183 246. Moratti, S., Keil, A. (2005). Cortical activation during Pavlovian fear conditioning depends on heart rate response patterns: An MEG study. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res., 25. Pp. 459 471. Perruchet, P., Vinter, A. (2002). The self-organizing consciousness. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 25. Pp. 297 330. Perruchet, P., Cleeremans, A., Destrebecqz, A. (2006). Dissociating the effects of automatic activation and explicit expectancy on reaction times in a simple associative learning task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32. Pp. 955 965. Shanks, D.R., Lovibond, P.F. (2002). Automatic and eyeblink conditioning are closely related to contingency awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior, Processes, 28. Pp. 38 42. Soetens, E., Notebaert, W. (2005). Response monitoring and expectancy in random serial RT tasks. Acta Psychologica, 119. Pp. 189 216.

A Lesson Before Dying Essays (651 words) - A Lesson Before Dying

A Lesson Before Dying The Right to Be Free In the novel A Lesson Before Dying, although Grant is an educated black man in the era of a racist society he has struggles greater than most men of his decent. I feel sorry for him because of his limitations, even though I view him as a coward. He cannot break free of his background and family. The three main female characters in the novel, Tante Lou, Miss Emma, and Vivian, restrict and limit Grant's choices. Grant realizes that freedom means leaving his small town and creating a new life, yet each woman holds a chain that keeps him from his destiny and the right to be free. First, Tante Lou, his aunt holds Grant from his dreams by refusing to let him go his own way. Tante Lou wants Grant to stay at home with her and take care of her. But, in the time the novel takes place, it wasn't common for young men stay with their elders and help out, especially when Grant has a college degree and can accomplish so much. Tante Lou took advantage of this in any means necessary, using the fact that Grant is family and in essence owes it to her to stay and help out. We can see this on page 14 when Tante Lou forces Grant to talk to Mr. Henri about seeing Jefferson. You are going up there with us Grant, or you will not sleep in this house tonight. Tante Lou denies Knodt 2 Grant choices that men his age have. Next, Miss Emma, who doesn't have a family relation to Grant, also restricts his choices in life. Miss Emma plays an important role in the novel by being Jefferson's godmother, and in a painstaking situation. She asks Grant in a way that gives him no real choices to teach Jefferson to be a man. Leaning on her ability to persuade, and using her power as an extensive friend to Tante Lou she can basically tell Grant what to do and gets away with it. She knew Grant did not want to go and teach Jefferson, but still went ahead with it. Driving along the St. Charles River I could feel Emma not looking at me, not looking at anything..just thinking. Like my Aunt she knew how much I hated all of this.(p.68) Miss Emma therefore forces Grant to do matters that she wants, not what Grant thinks he is capable of doing. Thirdly, Vivian, the love of his life, is also limiting Grant's ability to make decisions based strictly on his own intent. She understands Grant's need to leave and see new things, but has restrictions in her life that will not allow her to help Grant begin a new existence. Vivian is in the middle of a drawn out divorce and needs to see it through so she can maintain custody of her children. We see an example of this on page 93. Let's go somewhere and spend the night. Baton Rouge, New Orleans- anywhere, Grant asks. I can't, My Babies. This sentence alone describes the turmoil she is going through with her own threatening aspects and how it effects Grant's choices. I think the book is an intriguing novel and surfaced important issues dealt with in society. Religion, racism, and many other articles of today are just a few. But, Grant is a complex character and can be depicted thoroughly. His education holds him to a new Knodt3 standard not expected of people back then, but withholds him from reaching his dreams. He cannot find what he is looking for in this small town that A Lesson Before Dying takes place in. I feel sorry for him until Jefferson teaches him other factors involved to being a real and distinct kind of man. He evolves dramatically. But, his need to be free is still restrained by Tante English Essays

Free Essays on Victimization

Victimization is an asymmetrical relationship that is abusive, destructive, parasitical, unfair, and, in many cases, in violation of the law. You would think that elderly people are the least likely to be taken advantage of, actually you probably wouldn’t even consider it, but there is not only one way you can define abuse to a victim. Elder abuse was made out after child abuse and spouse abuse but follows along the same lines. Defining elder abuse varies in that it can consist of acts of commission and acts of ommision.by caretakers responsible for the older person’s well being. Therefore, abuse encompasses gross neglect as well as acts of intentional harm. These include assaults unreasonable confinement, financial exploitation or failure to provide clothing, food and shelter. (Crime Victims, An intro to Victimology, pg 79, 219-220) Persons who provide care to elderly people who live a t home perpetrate domestic elder abuse. Individuals who have contractual obligation to tend to the needs of older persons commit institutional elder abuse. The offender is most commonly a close relative, especially a grown child, spouse or sibling. The typical target is a frail elderly woman over 70. In most cases the victim and the abuser live in the same household in social isolation from friends, neighbors, and kin who might otherwise deem what they are doing wrong. An estimated 1.5 million older Americans were subjected to physical, psychological, or financial abuse or suffered serious or even life threatening, neglect in 1992. Congressional investigators estimated that only about 16% of abused elders dared to bring their case to the proper authorities. A sharply divided California Supreme Court, clarifying the duty to care for aged parents, ruled Friday that grown children can be prosecuted for neglect only if they have control over the elder's care. "It means that if you take on the responsibility of caring for your parent, yo... Free Essays on Victimization Free Essays on Victimization Victimization is an asymmetrical relationship that is abusive, destructive, parasitical, unfair, and, in many cases, in violation of the law. You would think that elderly people are the least likely to be taken advantage of, actually you probably wouldn’t even consider it, but there is not only one way you can define abuse to a victim. Elder abuse was made out after child abuse and spouse abuse but follows along the same lines. Defining elder abuse varies in that it can consist of acts of commission and acts of ommision.by caretakers responsible for the older person’s well being. Therefore, abuse encompasses gross neglect as well as acts of intentional harm. These include assaults unreasonable confinement, financial exploitation or failure to provide clothing, food and shelter. (Crime Victims, An intro to Victimology, pg 79, 219-220) Persons who provide care to elderly people who live a t home perpetrate domestic elder abuse. Individuals who have contractual obligation to tend to the needs of older persons commit institutional elder abuse. The offender is most commonly a close relative, especially a grown child, spouse or sibling. The typical target is a frail elderly woman over 70. In most cases the victim and the abuser live in the same household in social isolation from friends, neighbors, and kin who might otherwise deem what they are doing wrong. An estimated 1.5 million older Americans were subjected to physical, psychological, or financial abuse or suffered serious or even life threatening, neglect in 1992. Congressional investigators estimated that only about 16% of abused elders dared to bring their case to the proper authorities. A sharply divided California Supreme Court, clarifying the duty to care for aged parents, ruled Friday that grown children can be prosecuted for neglect only if they have control over the elder's care. "It means that if you take on the responsibility of caring for your parent, yo...

Email Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Email - Essay Example The survey is an illustration of a mechanism that can be used in profiling employee’s whit the highest level of job satisfaction thus giving the highest possible performance boosting a company’s productivity (Kuballa 2007). Employees who are satisfied with their job are less likely to leave the organization. This makes it easy for companies to retain talent in the current age where having skilled employees is being used as a source of competitive advantage (Fields 2002). Tenure is examined in this report because it is a crucial aspect in ensuring employees satisfaction. For employees to perform their duties satisfactorily, they should feel that their job is secure and that they cannot be fired any time. Age is also an important aspect in understanding the needs of the employees. If the highest percentage of the employees is of the age 50 and above, they would perform better if they were offered good pension plans and retirement benefits. Workers of the age 18 to 40 are more concerned on getting benefits such as health insurance and job tenure. Gender is also crucial. This is because increase in diversity in the workplace is crucial as it has been observed that it increases workers performance. Ensuring that there is gender balance in the workplace is important in order to promote better performance and good decision making (Cook 2008). This is because people from diverse groups are able to give their different contribution coming up with many alternative solutions. As have already been started, the size of the sample used in this report is 30 employees. This consisted of 60% males (18/60) and 40% (12/30). Tenure Distribution by Gender: 42% of the males have been in the company for more than 2 years 25 % males have been in the corporation for 2-5 yrs 8% males have been in the company for exactly 5 yrs 50% of the females have been in the company for more than 2 yrs 24% of the females have been in the company for 2-5 yrs 4% of the females have been i n the company for more than 5 yrs 20% of the employees interviewed were in the human resource department, 15% came from the administration department, and 30% was from the sales department, 25% from the direct production department. The extrinsic value by gender is measures on a scale of 1-7 with the females taking the value of 5.407 and the males 5.318. The probability that the individual chosen for this survey is between the age of 16-21 is 0.20. The probability that an individual job satisfaction is 5.2 or lower is 0.40. The probability that a person chosen for this survey is from the human resource department and is a female is 0.23. The probability that the individual will be a salaried employee whose intrinsic satisfaction value is 5 or more is 0.32. Besides the mentioned ways in which a company can use the probabilities above in promoting employees performance, the probabilities mentioned above can be used in several other ways. One way is to check whether the incentive plan and benefits package that the company is implementing in the company is working. The management has the role of understanding which kind of motivation work for different employees. According to Maslow’s theory of motivation, there are different levels of motivation and it is the work of the management to know which stage of development an employee is in and thus give them incentives that completely satisfies their current needs. For instance, according to the probability he notices that employees on the

Donald Palmers introduction to Western Philosophy Essay

Donald Palmers introduction to Western Philosophy - Essay Example A country’s constitution is used to protect the laws and rights of people residing in that country at any particular time. The constitution also gives guideline on how the law should be applied and interpreted. Politicians are given the mandate of changing the constitution and coming up with new laws that are meant for the greater good of the people and the country as well. A popular trend noticed during the campaigns is the issue of a personal manifesto, which stipulates what the politician will do for the people. Some greedy leaders have constantly exploited the authority given politicians by the constitution to change the laws. Such cases are popular in the African countries where there have been incidents whereby the president convinces his fellow politicians to change the constitution so that he or she can hold office for a longer period. This is where the current president’s political party has more people in parliament of political positions and this makes it eas y for him or her to do such a thing. Greedy politicians have passed laws that are in their favor failing to consider the greater good of other persons. There have been the passing of laws in some country that exempt the politicians from paying taxes and in order to cover for the lost tax, they increase the basic tax for the ordinary person. They also change the laws making them become the well-paid employees in the country.  Ã‚  To stress the impact of rules on people he quotes a person who was giving his experience on oppressive rules.

How does the TV show ( The Simpsons) effect my live Essay

How does the TV show ( The Simpsons) effect my live - Essay Example the following analysis will seek to engage the reader with an understanding of the impact that The Simpsons have had upon my own life and the manner by which I will ultimately intend on raising my own family. Essentially, The Simpsons served as a comedy program that could be enjoyed by each and every member of our family; when I was growing up. As such, my parents were not overly conservative and did not attempt to restrict the overall access the television in our home or otherwise only approved certain programs for viewing. The understanding that was unspoken, at least in our home, was the fact that when situations arose and were represented on television that did not abide by the rules of our family or the point of view that children were expected to respect, these did not need to be restricted; they merely needed to be dismissed. As such, I have distinct memories of several occasions in which my parents would laugh along with the plot of The Simpsons; turning to me and saying something to the effect of â€Å"you had best never do anything like that†. As such, even though this particular show was comedy, I was fully aware of the fact, even from an early age, that not everything represented within it should be taken exemplification from model behavior. In terms of The Simpsons and its overall impact upon how I will raise my own family, it should be noted that I will follow a very similar approach to that which my parents ascribe to during my own childhood. Rather than restricting access to certain television shows and ultimately attempting censor the media, the best approach is to enjoy these television shows with the appropriate age groups in question and merely categorized at certain times that specific behavior is not allowable and when not be tolerated. As such, the parent child relationship does not become one that is domineering; it becomes one that is beneficial and utilizes media as a way of helping to further define the roles that individuals within the

What leadership means to me

What leadership means to me 1. Introduction Although leadership is recognised as being an important construct, it is not a concept that holds one single definition. What leadership actually is, or how to define it correctly is still regarded as a mystery by many. Leadership is something that may differ depending on the people involved, the situation at hand, and the goals being pursued, and is therefore open to subjective interpretation. Stogdill (1974: 259) concluded that there are ‘almost as many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept. It could be argued that everyone has their own understanding of what constitutes leadership, based on personal and learning experiences, and situations and people, which is exactly why it is difficult to capture in a succinct definition. Grint (2004) narrows down the key reasons as to why it is so difficult to find a single and agreed understanding of leadership: process problems, position problems, philosophy problems, and purity problems . These problems refer to whether leadership is derived from traits or a social process, whether a leader is automatically in charge with formally allocated authority, and the questions as to whether a leader has intentional influence on the behaviour of followers, and is leadership embodied in individuals or groups and is it a purely human phenomenon. This essay seeks to explore what leadership means to me, drawing on personal experience of leadership as a social phenomenon, and discussing my views from the perspective of both a leader and follower. In order to make sense of my understanding of leadership, a critical review and commentary on leadership theory is included in the discussion. 2. Personal Experience of Leadership Within the Workplace For the past five years I have had a part time job at Marks and Spencer, and thus come across many types of leaders and managers. The question often asked is whether a manager can automatically be assumed to also be a leader? Zalenznik (1977) was one of the first to contrast leadership and management as he argued that a leader uses creativity and intuition, whereas a manager solves problems using rationality and control. Since then, many academics have agreed and argued that ‘good management brings about a degree of order and consistency to organisational processes and goals, whilst leadership is required for dynamic change (Kotter 1990: 104 cited in Bolden 2004: 6). In an organisation such as Marks and Spencer then, it is essential that they have both good management, who offer stability, consistency, order and efficiency, and good leaders who produce important change by keeping employees focused and motivated to achieve the vision communicated. In my workplace, I would say we have good ‘managers based on the above assumptions, however, I would not say that every manager is also a good leader. For this reason I agree with Kotter and Zalenznik, leadership and management differ from one another substantially. In the workplace context I am a follower, and so from this perspective I have seen what I would consider to be good leadership, and poor leadership styles. The authors who have focused on followers suggest that they are active participants in the leadership relationship (Boccialetti, 1995; Chaleff, 1995; Kelley, 1992; Shamir, Pillai, Bligh, Uhl-Bien, 2007). The socially constructed view sees leadership as being ‘in the eye of the beholder where it is the followers who have to agree on what constitutes leadership, and who they are prepared to follow. If the followers, and in my personal situation fellow employees, do not respect the leader, it is unlikely they will follow at all. Unless followers recognise and orient to particular behaviours, which they regard to be ‘leadership, then the person trying to lead is not a leader whatever their intentions. There is therefore no way for an individual to lead unless people are prepared to follow. There have been many instances at work when one particular manager has tried to lead change in the store, however because she is not well respected, and in my opinion does not come across as being a natural leader, often her vision gets ignored until another manager provides instructions for staff about the same vision. This manager is viewed by employees as having the role of simply instilling discipline, completing administrative tasks, and organising the shop floor, rather than communicating visions for change. Furthermore, although I believe that the roles of managers and leaders are very different, in my job there are no visible ‘leaders who are not managers in my store. The management team automatically take on the role of leadership, regardless of whether they are a good leader or not. As it is therefore management who attempt to provide the visions and plans for change, and employe es like myself have no responsibility or say in the directions they wish to take. Uhl-Bien and Pillai (2007) argue that followers who perceive the leader as responsible for making decisions are less likely to take an active role in the decision making process, and so, they give up autonomy. Many of my fellow employees, who often do not enjoy the job, also expect the leader, in this instance our manager, to motivate them rather than motivating themselves. The managers recognise this and often offer incentives, such as a bottle of wine, if we achieve certain targets. This could therefore be considered to be transactional leadership. A typical way of describing leadership styles within the organisation is applying McGregors (1969) theory X and theory Y. McGregor assumes that an organisation and its leaders can have differing opinions on the motivation and abilities of their employees. My line manager presumes that her staff dislikes working and takes a negative view of human nature, believing we will avoid doing work if possible. This is evident, as she will often split employees up on the shop floor to prevent them from ‘chatting, and she constantly checks up on her staff to ensure they are doing what she has asked them to do. Her actions and leadership style concur with what McGregor describes as theory X leaders. My manager believes that coercion and control is necessary to ensure that people work, and she never gives employees like myself any extra responsibilities. This style is also referred to as the autocratic style. Although my manager is assumed to be the leader at work, I would argue that she is not a good leader, and there have been times when I have had better guidance from a fellow colleague. My manager has a coercive style according to Golemans six leadership styles. She expects immediate compliance, often provides negative and corrective feedback and controls tightly. This style does not motivate employees to see her visions or follow her lead, instead it has often turned employees against her and people have refused to do certain tasks because of her leadership style. 3. Myself as a Leader Badminton Coach and Captain From a young age I have been told that I am a natural leader, possibly because I am bossy and like to get things done! Ever since I remember I have had certain personality traits, which I consider to be those of leaders: I am confident, ambitious, dominant, and so naturally take the lead in most situations. Based on what I have learnt from leaders I have come across, when leading my badminton team I keep in mind what styles I believe will be most successful. I consider myself to be a transformational leader (Bass and Avolio 1994) when in the role of badminton captain. As a leader I believe it is important for me to have a clear vision, and most importantly, be able to communicate it effectively to the whole team. Unlike the traditional transactional theory of leadership, which emphasizes corrective action, centralised control and rewards only when performance expectations are met, transformational leaders trust their subordinates and it is a more developmental and constructive form of leadership. In a sports team context it is also important for me to articulate our teams goals, which should be realistic and achievable. For example, before entering a tournament I will state where I expect us to finish, and that the vision is to win a gold medal. In order to achieve this goal I also have to motivate the team, and make sure they put the team and tournament at the top of their priority list, above any other self-interests at that time. Addi tionally I have to get the team members to understand how their style of play affects others, therefore encouraging them to view their game from others perspectives. And finally I have to develop the team in many ways, both physically to prepare them for a big tournament, and mentally so they reach their highest levels of ability. It could therefore be argued, that as a leader I follow what Bass and Avolio (1990) call the ‘four Is: Idealised Influence, Inspirational Motivation, Intellectual Stimulation, and Individualised Consideration. As a person I have previously been told that I am very charismatic. I think this also shows in my leadership style and I think I am also a charismatic leader. Northouse (2004) described the major characteristics as: dominant personally with the desire to influence others, strong role model behaviour and competence, articulation of ideological goals with moral overtones, and high expectation of followers and confidence that they will meet these expectations. Although I believe I have the personality traits required to become a leader, I am aware that there have been occasions when my leadership styles have been unsuccessful, as I have become impatient or intolerant of the followers. From these experiences I believe I have learnt a lot and therefore also see the importance of situational leadership and having the ability to alter the leadership styles I adopt. 4. Could Parents be considered to be Leaders? When considering leaders and leadership, and what it means to me, I thought about what my first experience of leadership ever was. Although leadership in an organisation is the key focus of the module and course, it cannot go ignored that my parents were the first influential leaders in my life. My parents have been very influential leaders in my life. As managing directors of their own company, they have always played the role of managers, however in our home their leadership style varied to that of in their work place, and to the styles of each other. My parents have ‘led me in the right direction. Unlike the traditional theories of leadership such as The Great Man Theory I would argue that my mum is the strongest leader in our home. It has been argued that women are more likely to use transformational leadership (Rosener 1990), and as the follower, this is the style I find motivational, inspirational and therefore successful. She uses more interactive leadership styles in co mparison to my dad as she encourages participation, power and information sharing and enhanced self worth. Although the leadership styles of parents are arguably very different to those of leaders within an organisation, my parents and their styles have had a massive influence on my understanding of leadership and on my whole life! They have led me to where I am today. I have been extremely lucky to be able to experience their leadership styles whilst running their company, therefore within an organisation. In this situation they both use different methods of leading than they do at home, thus supporting Hersey and Blanchards (1969) theory that leaders could adapt their styles to suit the situation. Situational or contingent leadership models recognise this, and support the argument that what constitutes effective leadership will be influenced by the situational factors such as the people involved, the task to be carried out, and the organisational culture. It is therefore essential that leaders employ a variety of approaches across a range of situations. 5. Conclusion From taking the time to consider what leadership means to me, it has only become more apparent about how complex the concept of leadership actually is. I believe ‘leadership is different to different people. Whom I consider to be an effective leader, others may not, and what I consider to be traits that create a successful leader, others may not. Leadership to me is something that comes naturally, however in different situations, there needs to be different forms of leadership in order for your followers to ‘follow. Although there have been many studies on leadership, and many theories produced, I agree with Burns statement that ‘leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth. (Burns, 1978: 3) 5.1 My theoretical understanding of leadership I have found it difficult to truly understand and specify my theoretical stance of leadership. Generally speaking, it is assumed that a person either believes that leadership is a consequence of a set of traits or characteristics possessed by leaders, or that leadership is a social process that emerges and is learned throughout life and from group relationships. I, on the other hand, believe there is truth in both approaches. I would argue that some people are simply born leaders due to their dispositions and personalities, however they also need to learn and understand how to use these traits to become a successful leader, hence leadership capability must also be partly learned. I have this opinion because of my experiences. I often become the leader in group task situations, at university for example, and although I know it often comes naturally to me, I have had to learn how to use my leadership trait effectively in order to succeed and lead the followers. I agree with Gallies sta tement that ‘Leadership appears to be, like power, an essentially contested concept (Gallie 1995 cited in Grint 2004: 1). Furthermore, I have the same opinion of the situational leadership approach due to personal experiences with leaders, and as a leader myself. Zaccaro (2007), Sternberg (2007), and Vroom and Jago (2007) argue that neither trait nor situational attributes alone are sufficient to explain leader behaviour and effectiveness. It is the interaction between traits and situations that counts.

Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) for Backbones Essay -- Technology,

Abstract : Internet Protocol version 6(Pv6) is the advanced version of the IPv4 protocol and both of these protocols are part of TCP/IP suite.TCP/IP is the only protocol for transmission of data over the internet As the internet is not secure place for transmission of secure and confidential information (packets) So to protect this information over the non secure channels(internet ) the IPSec was introduced .IPSec is the worldly know standard for the secure transmission over the internet . IPSec is mandatory for IPv6 and optional for IPv4 deployments .But as the IPsec provides authentication, confidentiality and integrity of the internet protocol (IP) packets but it slows down the transmission devices and where there is huge transmission of data like in Gbps at the backbone networks, the performance of the transmission devices is highly effected . So to improve the transmission rate on high performance networks number of techniques have been used till now and these techniques are the valuable addition in the current technologies .Purpose of this paper is to high light , what types of techniques are available in the current time for improving the performance of the transmission devices both at the H/W and S/W level while applying the IPSec and what drawbacks in the already existing techniques . Keywords: Internet Protocol Security (IPsec), IPv6 , Internet Security, Virtual Private Network(VPN) security ,IPsec for high performance networks. Introduction :As in the current era the internet is widely used for sending and receiving information in a very fast way. As internet is not only used by the single user but huge companies (enterprises) use them for their business use . An enterprises may have their offices at different l... ...yer of TCP/IP working like SSL and these all security protocols need security parameter for establishing a secure connection over the network and each security protocol is doing this by negotiation their own security parameter with the other party. That’s why each security protocol is negotiating its security parameter independently which is the wastage of network resources.[3] The author proposes his solution that each security protocol will maintain its set of negotiating parameters which is called DoI (Domain of interpretation ).ISAKMP will store these agreed security parameters into a file which is called SA file and group of SA are stored in a database and other security protocol will use these security parameter instead of negotiating their own and thus avoiding the duplicity. [3]. Figure 6 :Relation of Security Protocol through ISAKMP negotiation[3]